Exploring the Issues behind Patient-Assisted Suicide Essay

Death is as much a part of human existence, of human growth and development, like birth. All humans need to undergo all these processes as they journey through life. However, death sets a limit on our time in this world, and life culminates in death. However, when we intervene with some of these natural processes, problems arise because it intrudes in life’s natural processes. This is why, suicide is not just perceived as a medical problem because it also involves legal, ethical, social, personal, and financial considerations. It is not just morally reprehensible for a physician, or any medical practitioner, to assist the patient to conduct this procedure because it negates their responsibility to preserve life, suicide also devalues the life of the patient as its fate is put entirely in the hands of a human being to intrude with the natural process of things. For this reason, the debate over euthanasia (or patient-assisted suicide) involves many professionals, as well as the patients and their families. The arguments now have to do with the dignity of the patients, the quality of their lives, their mental state, and sometimes their usefulness to society. For example, the patient who is in a vegetative state is considered dead by some but not by others, and this case presents substantial ethical and logistical problems. The Oxford Dictionary of English (2005) defines euthanasia as â€Å"the painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable and painful disease or in an irreversible coma†. However, euthanasia means much more than a â€Å"painless death†, or the means of procuring it, or the action of inducing it. The definition specifies only the manner of death, and if this were all that was implied a murderer, careful to drug his victim, could claim that his act was an act of euthanasia. We find this ridiculous because we take it for granted that in euthanasia it is death itself, not just the manner of death. How can someone administer a medical â€Å"procedure† to the one who dies in the end? If a person requests the termination of his or her life, the action is called voluntary euthanasia (and often also assisted suicide). If the person is not mentally competent to make an informed request, the action is called non-voluntary euthanasia. Both forms should be distinguished from involuntary euthanasia, which involves a person capable of making an informed request, but who has not done so. Involuntary euthanasia is universally condemned and plays no role in current moral controversies. A final set of distinctions appeals to the active–passive distinction: passive euthanasia involves letting someone die from a disease or injury, whereas active euthanasia involves taking active steps to end a person’s life. All of these distinctions suffer from borderline cases and various forms of ambiguity. The focus of recent public and philosophical controversy has been over voluntary active euthanasia (VAE), especially physician-assisted suicide. Supporters of VAE argue that there are cases in which relief from suffering supersedes all other consequences and that respect for autonomy obligates society to respect the decisions of those who elect euthanasia. If competent patients have a legal and moral right to refuse treatment that brings about their deaths, there is a similar right to enlist the assistance of physicians or others to help patients cause their deaths by an active means. Usually, supporters of VAE primarily look to circumstances in which (1) a condition has become overwhelmingly burdensome for a patient, (2) pain management for the patient is inadequate, and (3) only a physician seems capable of bringing relief (Dworkin, Frey & Bok, 1998). One well-known incident that VAE came into the headlines was when it was provided by the bizarre activities of Dr.  Jack Kevorkian in early 1990s (or â€Å"Dr Death† as the media have dubbed him) in the USA. Dr. Kevorkian, a retired pathologist, assisted over forty people to commit suicide in recent years in circumstances which were somewhat removed from regular medical practice. These people travelled to Kevorkian from all over the USA to seek his assistance in suicide. He assisted them, sometimes by attaching them, in the back of his rusting Volkswagen van, to his ‘suicide machine’, which injected them with lethal drugs when they activated it. Despite being prosecuted for assisted suicide on several occasions, Kevorkian escaped conviction and continued his personal campaign for relaxation of the law in his peculiar way. It was only when he moved from assistance in suicide to euthanasia that he was finally convicted. He filmed himself administering a lethal injection, and the film helped secure his conviction for murder (Keown 2002, p. 31). Of course, his actions provoked discussion of the thin line separating passive euthanasia, which is legal in this country, and active euthanasia. Opponents of Kevorkian’s actions state that he is practicing assisted suicide, which is illegal. Proponents of Kevorkian’s actions argue that the patient’s right to control his or her medical treatment is sufficient justification for assisted suicide. Euthanasia is Not Ethical According to Somerville (2006), there are two major reasons why people should not allow euthanasia to be legalized. One is based on principle: it is wrong for one human to intentionally kill another (except in justified self-defense, or in the defense of others). The other reason is utilitarian: the harms and risks of legalizing euthanasia, to individuals in general and to society, far outweigh any benefits. While Mak, Elwyn & Finlay (2006) reasoned that â€Å"most studies of euthanasia have been quantitative, focusing primarily on attitudes of healthcare professionals, relatives, and the public†. Pain is usually identified as a major reason for requesting euthanasia; other influences included functional impairment, dependency, burden, social isolation, depression, hopelessness, and issues of control and autonomy. This is why, Mak, Elwyn & Finlay (2006) thought that legalizing euthanasia is a â€Å"premature† move when research evidence from the perspectives of those who desire euthanasia is not yet proven to be necessary. They said â€Å"more qualitative patient based studies are needed to broaden our understanding of patients†. What needs to be done, they deemed, should be the â€Å"inclusion of medical humanities, experiential learning, and reflective practice into medical education should help ensure doctors have better communication skills and attitudes†. By examining ways to improve care at all levels, healthcare professionals can eliminate the side effects of poor end of life care, then euthanasia would not be needed anymore. In 1988, the Journal of the American Medical Association published a statement on its take about patient-assisted suicide when a gynecology resident agreed to conduct assisted suicide to a young woman, dying of cancer, whom he has never seen before. Horrified by her severe distress, and proceeding alone without consultation with anyone, the doctor gives her a lethal injection of morphine. The publishing of this gynecology resident’s letter caused media hype and was featured in the previous issue in JAMA, where it was titled as â€Å"It’s Over Debbie† (1988). This is how the JAMA took its position regarding the matter: 1. ) On his own admission, the resident appears to have committed a felony: premeditated murder. Direct intentional homicide is a felony in all American jurisdictions, for which the plea of merciful motive is no excuse. That the homicide was clearly intentional is confirmed by the resident’s act of unrepentant publication. Law aside, the physician behaved altogether in a scandalously unprofessional and unethical manner. He did not know the patient: he had never seen her before, he did not study her chart, he did not converse with her or her family. He never spoke to her physician. He took as an unambiguous command her only words to him, â€Å"Let’s get this over with†: he did not bother finding out what precisely she meant or whether she meant it wholeheartedly. He did not consider alternative ways of bringing her relief or comfort; instead of comfort, he gave her death. This is no humane and thoughtful physician succumbing with fear and trembling to the pressures and well-considered wishes of a patient well known to him, for whom there was truly no other recourse. This is, by his own account, an impulsive yet cold technician, arrogantly masquerading as a knight of compassion and humanity. (Indeed, so cavalier is the report and so cold-blooded the behavior, it strains our credulity to think that the story is true. ) Law and professional manner both aside, the resident violated one of the first and most hallowed canons of the medical ethic: doctors must not kill. Generations of physicians and commentators on medical ethics have underscored and held fast to the distinction between ceasing useless treatments (or allowing to die) and active, willful taking of life; at least since the Oath of Hippocrates, Western medicine has regarded the killing of patients, even on request, as a profound violation of the deepest meaning of the medical vocation. The Judicial Council of the American Medical Association in 1986, in an opinion regarding treatment of dying patients, affirmed the principle that a physician â€Å"should not intentionally cause death. † Neither legal tolerance nor the best bedside manner can ever make medical killing medically ethical (Baird & Rosenbaum 1989, p. 26). Indeed, the laws of most nations and the codes of medical and research ethics from the Hippocratic Oath to today’s major professional codes strictly prohibit VAE (and all forms of merciful hastened death), even if a patient has a good reason for wanting to die. Although courts have often defended the rights of patients in cases of passive euthanasia, courts have rarely allowed any form of what they judged to be VAE. Those who defend laws and medical traditions opposed to VAE often appeal to either (1) professional-role obligations that prohibit killing or (2) the social consequences that would result from changing these traditions. The first argument is straightforward: killing patients is inconsistent with the roles of nursing, care-giving, and healing. The second argument is more complex and has been at the center of many discussions. This argument is referred to as the wedge argument or the slippery slope argument, and proceeds roughly as follows: although particular acts of active termination of life are sometimes morally justified, the social consequences of sanctioning such practices of killing would run serious risks of abuse and misuse and, on balance, would cause more harm than benefit. The argument is not that these negative consequences will occur immediately, but that they will grow incrementally over time, with an ever-increasing risk of unjustified termination (Dworkin, Frey & Bok, 1998). Refusal of Treatment When a patient refuses treatment, the physician is faced with a great dilemma. Doctors maintain that if the patient does not want treatment, physicians do not have a duty to start it. Once treatment is started, however, physicians have a duty to continue it if discontinuing it would lead to the patient’s death. They are not required to force a patient to go on a respirator if the patient refuses, but once the patient has gone on the respirator, doctors have a duty to keep him on it, even contrary to the patient’s wishes, if taking him off would result in his death. Suffice it here to point out one important limit: a doctor is not ethically bound to assist a refusal of treatment which is suicidal, that is, made not because the treatment is futile or excessively burdensome but in order to hasten death (Keown, 2002, p. 253). Actual suicide has been a felony in England in the past but today, suicide has been decriminalized in most part of the world. Attempting to take one’s own life, however, remains criminal in some jurisdictions. In these as well as in those states where it is not a crime, the state has intervened in some cases to order life-sustaining treatment in the face of objection by a competent adult. The most widely cited case in which this was done is John F. Kennedy Memorial Hospital v. Heston (1971), where a twenty-two-year-old unmarried woman refused a blood transfusion because she was a Jehovah’s Witness. She was forced to have one anyway on the theory that there is no difference between passively submitting to death and actively seeking it. The state regards both as attempts at self-destruction and may prevent them. Since this case, however, the trend of cases has been away from this reasoning and toward subordinating the state’s interest in the prevention of suicide to the rights of patients to forgo or have withdrawn life-sustaining treatment (Berger 1995, p. 20). However, when the patient is terminal and death is imminent, no treatment is medically indicated, and the competent patient’s rightful refusal of treatment does not conflict with the health provider’s form of beneficence. There may be an emotional problem in admitting defeat, but there should be no ethical problem. It should be noted that, although the patient may not be competent at the end, refusal of treatment may be accomplished through a living will or a surrogate, especially through a surrogate who has durable power of attorney for health matters. In the case when the patient is terminal but death is not imminent, for example when the disease or injury progresses slowly, and granted the consent of the patient or surrogate, it appears ethical to omit treatment on the ground that nothing can be accomplished in thwarting the progress of the disease. But it is not ethical to omit care, since human dignity is to be respected. To solve this dilemma, the AMA Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs (1996) takes a clear stand on the issue: E-2. 20 Even if the patient is not terminally ill or permanently unconscious, it is not unethical to discontinue all means of life-sustaining medical treatment in accordance with a proper substituted judgment or best interests analysis. The treatments include artificially supplied respiration, nutrition, or hydration. In its recent opposition to physician-assisted suicide, the AMA has strongly endorsed a program to educate physicians to the appropriateness of switching from therapeutic treatment to palliative care. The group has gone from a tentative, negative position (â€Å"not unethical†) to a much stronger positive stand (AMA, 1996). On the other hand, we should also consider the reasoning behind the ethical correctness of not beginning or of stopping treatment in the case of the consenting patient who is terminally ill. First, the health care provider has no obligation to prolong dying merely for the sake of prolonging it. That is, it makes no sense to prolong life when the true result is the prolongation of the dying process. Furthermore, when treatment is only prolonging the agony of the patient, its continuation is unethical as an insult to human dignity (Cahill, 1977). In such cases, the health care provider would be ethically justified in discontinuing treatment, except when the patient insists on treatment. Even in this case, however, there can be exceptions. When there is a severe shortage of medical resources, the physician might be justified in stopping nonindicated treatment even over the protests of the patient. We say â€Å"might be justified,† since justification would depend, among other things, on a new social consensus about the duties of health care professionals and on a reasonable certainty that a shortage exists. There are also problems in discontinuing treatment when the patient’s surrogate(s) objects. It should be noted that cessation of life-sustaining treatment does not always bring about a swift and painless death, even though it may speed up the process of dying. For example, if kidney dialysis is discontinued, the person remains conscious and suffers vomiting, internal hemorrhage, and convulsions. The removal of a respirator does not lead to death immediately, and the patient suffers the pain and panic of suffocation. The obligation to care for the patient demands that every ethical effort be made to alleviate these sufferings with drugs and other methods that will not prolong life. Much recent research suggests that physicians are particularly deficient in their willingness and ability to provide adequate pain palliation for dying patients (SUPPORT, 1995). This could be one of the main concerns that drive the interest in physician-assisted suicide. Beyond this, when such pain relief is not possible for the patient, or when the harm is not the pain, but the insult to dignity, there arises the difficult problem of actively cooperating in the suicide of the patient. Religious Issues Several religions have a negative take on any form of suicide. Those who oppose active euthanasia on religious grounds, the basic concern seems to be the view that our lives are not ours but gifts from God. In this view, humans hold their lives as a trust. If this is true, then we are bound to hold not only the lives of others inviolate but also our own, since to take our life is to destroy what belongs to God. For Christians, in Exodus 34:7 and Daniel 13:53, scriptures taken from the Old Testament, the doctrine of the sanctity of life principle is upheld, except in rare instances of self defense. Judeo-Christian precepts generally condemn active euthanasia in any form, but allow some forms of passive euthanasia. The difference is that of omission and commission: While the Judeo-Christian philosophy might tolerate the allowance of death, acts that permit death, it draws the line in regard to acts that cause death. For Buddhists, they perceive it as an involvement of the intentional taking of life. This is why euthanasia is contrary to basic Buddhist ethical teachings because it violates the first of the Five Precepts. It is also contrary to the more general moral principle of ahimsa. This conclusion applies to both the active and passive forms of the practice, even when accompanied by a compassionate motivation with the end of avoiding suffering. The term ‘euthanasia’ has no direct equivalent in canonical Buddhist languages. Euthanasia as an ethical issue is not explicitly discussed in canonical or commentarial sources, and no clear cases of euthanasia are reported. However, there are canonical cases of suicide and attempted suicide which have a bearing on the issue. One concerns the monastic precept against taking life, the third of the four parajika-dharmas, which was introduced by the Buddha when a group of monks became disenchanted with life and began to kill themselves, some dying by their own hand and others with the aid of an intermediary. The Buddha intervened to prevent this, thus apparently introducing a prohibition on voluntary euthanasia. In other situations where monks in great pain contemplated suicide they are encouraged to turn their thoughts away from this and to use their experience as a means to developing insight into the nature of suffering and impermanence (anitya) (Dictionary of Buddhism, 2003). Nonreligious arguments against active euthanasia usually follow a slippery slope or wedge line of reasoning. In some ways the arguments recall the parable of the camel who pleaded with his owner to be allowed to put his nose into the tent to keep it warm against the cold desert night. Once the nose was allowed, other adjustments were requested, and the owner found himself sleeping with his camel. Is there something so persuasive about putting others to death that, if allowed, would become gross and commonplace? The Nazi â€Å"final solution,† which brought about the death of millions of Jews, gypsies, and other eastern Europeans, could be traced to compulsory euthanasia legislation that, at the time of its enactment, included only mental cases, monstrosities, and incurables who were a burden of the state. Using the Nazi experience as a guide, critics of active euthanasia do see some seductiveness to killing that humans do not seem able to handle. Perhaps Sigmund Freud (1925) was right as he wrote: What no human soul desires there is no need to prohibit; it is automatically excluded. The very emphasis of the commandment â€Å"Thou shalt not kill† makes it certain that we spring from an endless ancestry of murderers, with whom the lust for killing was in the blood, as possibly it is to this day with ourselves. The religious take on euthanasia often focus on the sanctity/inviolability of life. In Western thought, the development of the principle has owed much to the Judaeo-Christian tradition. That tradition’s doctrine of the sanctity of life holds that human life is created in the image of God and is, therefore, possessed of an intrinsic dignity which entitles it to protection from unjust attack. With or without this theological underpinning, the doctrine that human life possesses an intrinsic dignity grounds the principle that one must never intentionally kill an innocent human being. The ‘right to life’ is essentially a right not to be intentionally killed (Keown, 2002, p. 40).

Fossil Fuels and Global Warming Essay

The use of fossil fuels as the primary source of energy has unwittingly landed humanity into its greatest challenge yet. As oil and coal are burnt up, the greenhouse gases are causing the melting of polar ice, leading to a chain reaction that threatens every other aspect of the ecosystem. This paper looks at the crisis that fossil fuels have brought about, as well exploring existent and proposed solutions, both at the collective and the individual level. Introduction Global warming technically refers to the overall rise in global temperatures. Its widespread use however also encompasses the courses of this rise in temperatures and the effects thereof. More importantly, it is synonymous with the role of human beings’ activity in contributing to these rises. Carbon emissions from planes, cars and industrial plants rise up into the atmosphere and create a blanket of heavy air that traps heat that radiates onto the earth’s surface. By not letting heat escape, over time the globe becomes warmer. This has a direct effect on the flow of ocean currents, directly responsible for weather patterns. It also causes the melting of polar ice, which besides also affecting climate, also causes the sea levels to rise. (Guggenheim D & Gore Albert, 2006). Effects of Global Warming Some critics are skeptical of the whole notion of global warming. Despite this criticism, it has grabbed the attention of masses, and they are increasingly examining its effects. The following is a brief insight; Agriculture is fundamental to life, as it is the source of food. Without food, human beings are at risk of extinction, and conflicts are bound to arise. Yet global warming is threatening agriculture. Due to climate change, the environments where bees and other creatures vital to pollination are used to dwelling in are no longer suitable, and the bees are disappearing in droves. More than that, rainfall and sunshine patterns are changing, rendering farmlands unsuitable for the crops that are used to growing there normally. The combined effect is that agricultural yields are negatively affected, and there arises a shortage in overall supply of food worldwide. In early 2008, with the human race hungrier, food prices rose to their highest levels ever, and inflation in many countries became unprecedented. This trend came to a head at the beginning of 2008, with riots and revolts in numerous countries. In the Philippines, soldiers were deployed to guard food crop farms from being raided. Haitians on their part overthrew their government in protest over untenable food costs. It is also here that people were reduced to eating mud, if only to fill up their stomachs. Similar scenarios were reported in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and a good number of Asian emerging economies. Global warming is not the only factor in bringing about food shortage, but it does play a major role, and has come to the attention of masses around the globe that are willing to act to mitigate the negative effects (Auken, 2008). Another set of negative effect that has been tied to global warming are the now prevalent natural disasters pounding various parts of the world. Hurricanes that have brought devastation to New Orleans, Mexico and more recently Jamaica over the past few seasons have been the worst in recorded history. They have been attributed to rises in sea level resulting from glacial melts owing to global warming. They have brought unprecedented destruction, forcing many coastal cities to adopt new strategies to combat such events. Billions of dollars are now being invested in disaster prevention, and are resulting in an increase in taxation. Similar amounts are being invested in reconstruction efforts to restore damaged infrastructure. Housing models are being radically changed, with cheaper housing being favored to cut losses in case of any eventualities. Prevalent Solutions Such tools as carbon footprints and green qualifications are now being employed to influence the conduct of the common person to contribute toward reducing their personal negative impact on the globe; consumers in Europe and America are increasingly becoming conscious to purchase food with minimal carbon footprints for example. Carbon footprints refer to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted during the process of developing a product from scratch to the point where it gets to the consumer. In effect, products which use plenty of machinery to produce and have to be transported by heavily fuel reliant means such as planes and trucks have much higher carbon footprints than those that are produced using minimal fossil energy and are close to the market. Labels indicating the carbon footprint are put on products by organizations who take the initiative, in a bid to persuade consumers to buy the least destructive products. And the method seems to be working. In Europe especially, consumers are increasingly cutting on their contributions environmental degradation and products with high carbon footprints and finding increasingly limited market. Closely related is the issue of organic foods. These are gaining preference for the reason that they are produced using only natural material, rather than chemicals that are hazardous to human beings and detrimental to the environment. The level to which a product is free of chemical toxicity is referred to as its organic rating, just like carbon footprints are used to depict the level of carbon emissions of a product. Publications and other forms of media are used by proactive organizations to sensitize the public on which products are environmentally friendly, and these do have a major influence on consumer choices. The result is that farmers serving the European markets are using increasingly less machinery and chemicals, thereby reducing the emissions and chemical pollution of the agricultural industry to the environment. Manufacturers also have to adapt to a new way of production- with their carbon footprints being closely monitored, they are increasingly adjusting their production processes to get favorable ratings (Organic Trade Association, 2008). My Solution Proposal In the fight against global warming, I believe efforts should now be geared toward experiments on entirely new lifestyles and forms of organization, with successful experiments being replicated across the globe. In my case, I propose an experiment with a new eco city, preferably in an arid area, at a waterfront (e. g. a lake) for sustainability of life. This will kill quite a few birds with one stone, as the problems of food insecurity, unsustainable energy and wasted land would all be addressed. Implementation In designing such an urban development, cutting edge technology and radical thinking are required at every step of the way. Ecological urban planning concepts are necessary to take advantage of the lake breeze, which can be harnessed for wind energy to cater for a significant part of the new city’s energy requirements. The city plan should also allow for the breeze to penetrate the streets and residential areas rather than block it. When this is done, ecological architecture can be employed in designing self-cooling buildings, which have the advantage of not only saving on air conditioning. This is desirable because it both saves on energy and preserves the environment, seeing as most air conditioners are environmentally harmful. The urban plan also needs to take care of existing ecosystems – if there are any streams, trees or wildlife habitations, the city and building designs should be made around them. Buildings will need to be fitted with solar panels to take advantage of the abundant sun in arid lands, thus further adding to the energy supply provided by wind. Wherever possible, buildings should have green roofing. This is where gardens are made on top of roofs for purposes of food, beautification and more. This will have a number of advantages; food will be more abundant, a cool microclimate will be created (further reducing the need for air conditioning), and the carbon footprint will be drastically reduced or eliminated. The buildings can also be constructed with double walls using recycled material (for sustainability). Double walls have the effect of keeping temperatures low when it’s hot outside and warm when it’s cold outside. Stretches of idle land just outside the city can be used to plant ecologically friendly biofuel crops such as Jatropha Carcus, which is drought-resistant, to complete whatever energy requirements that may remain. Being at the lakefront, clean water for most chores might prove a challenge to get, thus the need to preserve and recycle whatever water can be harnessed. One of the ways to do this is by use of a Sewerage Treatment Plant (STP), which filters sewerage to produce water for irrigation and gas for cooking. This way, other clean sources of water can be less burdened. Energy needs will also be met. Gardens and parks should be organic to reduce the amount of fertilizer and chemical pesticides necessary to maintain them. Sustaining the Gains All the outlined gains of an eco-city would be to naught if the residents do not sustain them. Residents should be encouraged to carpool when going to work, or better still to cycle to work to minimize the carbon footprint. As much as possible, recycled material should be used and other material should be recycled. The use of plastic bags should be banned, instead encouraging the use of bio-degradable baskets. For lighting, energy-saving fluorescent bulbs and tubes should be used. Each home should have a garden in its compound, with at least a tree or two. The gardens, for domestic food consumption, should be grown organically. The beach area should be kept clean, with no littering or dumping of chemicals or effluent into the lake. This will help preserve marine life and overall aesthetic beauty. If such a city can be constructed, myriad gains will have been made; Positive Environmental Impact The immediate impact of all the new vegetation – the green roofs, home gardens, biofuel crops, etc – would be the creation of a cool microclimate in the developed area. Being in front of a lake, the arid land as it currently is cannot benefit because all the moisture being brought in by the breeze either evaporates or travels long distances inland, benefiting other areas with vegetation. With the new vegetation however, the moisture would be trapped, and as the plants perspire, vapor would rise into the local sky, thereby creating rain at that local level. The overall reduced heat levels would also slow down evaporation rates, ensuring that the soil remains moist, helped also by the increased rain. Naturally, more rain is bound to increase vegetation cover, further enhancing the value of the land and creating a positive cycle. Positive Impact on Soil As the vegetation grows and dies, the soil would be enriched organically as the foliage decomposes, increasing its productivity. This happens when the decomposed foliage turns into humus, and mixes with the local sand. This has the effect of bonding the soil together while creating an acceptable level of drainage and porosity within it. If the soil is further enriched with the waste products of the STP process, the overall composition of the soil will become highly favorable to agriculture. It would also be conducive for worms and other soil organisms to grow, which in turn further enrich the soil with vital nutrients. Positive Economic Impact Another area of profound impact will be economic; from the time of construction right through to the establishment of offices and residences, employment opportunities will abound for both locals and immigrants. The eco-friendliness of the area will also attract investment – a lot of which these days is conscientious – thus spurring growth. Being at the lakefront, the city is also highly likely to attract considerable international tourism as tourists seek clean and new areas to escape from winter or simply to unwind. At the same time, the marine fishing industry is bound to experience a boost from the clean fishing areas, with ready market locally provided by residents within the new city. They may even be able to export, depending on other factors. At the domestic level, people will be able to grow food and reduce their household budget. They may even be able to sell some of it and generate income – the city can be a net exporter of food. Conclusion Global warming has blessed the world with a lot to ponder upon. With effects ranging from food shortage to natural catastrophes, mitigation should not be a question of whether, but how and when. Coupled with this is the need for newer energy sources, to reduce the globe’s dependency on fossil fuels. With concerted efforts and due diligence, the problems that these two factors portend can be contained to an extent. I propose an experiment with an eco city built on a waterfront as a means of studying how human beings can adopt a top down approach to addressing these pressing issues. I believe the gains to be made will not just be environmental but economic as well. Works Cited Associated press, June 20th 2007, Fossil fuels Tycoon plans largest wind farm- green machines- MSNBC. com, Retrieved 12th Feb 2009. , http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/19231397 Auken, B. V, 15th April 2008, Amid mounting food crisis, governments fear revolution of the hungry, Retrieved 11th Sep, 2008, http://www. wsws. org/articles/2008/apr2008/food-a15. shtml The British Council (no date). Effects of Global Warming: Social Impact-Climate Change. Retrieved 12th Feb 2009. http://www. britishcouncil. org/climatechange-fact-sheets-global-warming-social-impact. htm Green Africa Foundation, 2008, Retrieved 12th Feb 2009, http://greenafricafoundation. org Guggenheim D, Gore Albert, 2006. An Inconvenient Truth (Film) Organic Trade Association (2008). NOSB Definition of Organic. Retrieved 12th Feb 2009. http://www. ota. com/standards/nosb/definition. html United States Environmental Protection Agency, Heat Island Effect. Retrieved 12th Feb 2009. http://www. epa. gov/heatisland/

The Digital Age Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 56

The Digital Age - Essay Example The development of email has profoundly changed modern cultures. As recently as twenty years ago the only means of communicating with other people over great distances was through time-consuming letter writing, or expensive long distance phone calls. The advent of email has greatly shortened means of communication, allowing people to remain in contact with each other for virtually no cost overextended differences. Another major contribution to modern culture is text messaging. While text messaging does not have perhaps the large-scale implications as email, it has contributed to modern culture through allowing a less formal means of communicating. Furthermore, in developing regions where the full-scale Internet is unavailable, it has allowed farmers or laborers to receive much needed daily information and entertainment. A final significant change to modern culture has emerged through social networking. Social networking has affected modern culture by allowing individuals to remain in contact with people they otherwise would never hear from. Similarly, it has allowed people to seek out diverse groups of people with similar interests. In conclusion, this essay has examined the effects of email, texting, and social networking on modern cultures. It’s demonstrated these elements have had a significant impact on modern culture through allowing individuals new forms of communication, and breaking previous barriers to establishing relationships. While many of these technologies are viewed as a sort of past-time.

THE ARGUMENTS SURROUNDING ROLE OF WOMEN IN CHURCH LEADERSHIP Essay

THE ARGUMENTS SURROUNDING ROLE OF WOMEN IN CHURCH LEADERSHIP - Essay Example However, the dissenting side of this argument takes texts such as Galatians 3:28 which states, â€Å"There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus† (NIV). Such a text stands in stark contrast to the other previously mentioned texts which seem to speak out with regards to the role of women in positions of church leadership (Shade 2008, p. 25). As such, in order to reconcile such differing interpretations, the role of the Christian should be to seek to find the common ground that Christ’s example led while on earth. Whereas the disciples were merely representations of the Holy Spirit’s voice, Christ during his earthy ministry was the ultimate representation of the will of the Father. However, during his time on earth Jesus ultimately refrained from making broad or sweeping judgments that would segregate the sexes with regards to what functions they could perform (Bates 2011, p. 7). Instead, there are numerous instances in which he actively sought to promote the equality of women throughout a very tribal and primitive culture to which he ministered. For such a reason, it is the belief of this author that texts such as Galat ians 3:28 should be held as the ultimate standard for whether or not women should be able to be considered for positions of church leadership (Hamman 2010, p.

Horror Remakes Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9250 words

Horror Remakes - Dissertation Example A horror film made during paranoid times might capitalize on these times by making their films focused around paranoia as well. A film made during a post 9/11 era might capitalize on the nation’s moods, and fears, by delivering a film about good and evil, such as The Omen. The films that will be discussed in this analysis, The Dawn of the Dead, The Omen and The Texas Chainsaw Massacre all have reasons, either ostensible or stated, for being made. Two of the films, Chainsaw and Dawn, have very little in common with their predecessors. The third, The Omen, is virtually a shot-for-shot remake of the original. This paper will examine these three films, and their remakes, emphasizing the differences between them. Then, this paper will attempt to ascribe motive for making these films, beyond the obvious, that these films will probably will make money. Finally, this paper will make a conclusion about the films, and the reasons for making them. Included in the analysis of the remakes verses the originals will be an analysis of the audience reactions for these films. Discussion Dawn of the Dead The Omen, which is the next film which will be analyzed, was pretty much a superfluous remake for a variety of reasons. The main reason that it is, however, is that it pretty much is a shot for shot remake of the original, and brought nothing new to the table. Not so Dawn of the Dead. The George Romero version and the Zack Snyder version are as different, as, well, night and day. The Zombies The first difference that will be explained will be in the zombies themselves, as they are really the â€Å"star† of the two shows. In the George Romero version, the zombies were the epitome of campy shlock (Romero, 1978). According to Webster’s dictionary, the definition of schlock is â€Å"cheap or inferior goods; trash,† and this would describe the George Romero zombies accurately. Unfortunately for the integrity of the film, there were many close-ups of the zombies, and they were laughably bad looking. There were no Academy Award nominations for makeup on this film. The zombies basically walked around with a greyish-green tint on their face, and this was the extent of the makeup job. Romero himself admitted that the make consisted of â€Å"grey makeup† which was basically pancake makeup. He talks about â€Å"slapping grey makeup on,† which means that Romero himself did not take the makeup issue very seriously (DVD Commentary, Dawn of the Dead). The blood that came on of the zombies as they were shot also looked incredibly fake, like the kind of fake blood one might buy at a Walgreen’s when one wants to dress up as Dracula. Moreover, the zombies themselves were not aggressive – they were too slow to really be too much of a threat to anybody, unless one is in a large crowd of them. Because the zombies were more comic than scary, and were, for the most part, non-threatening because of their extremely slow gait, the overall effect of the zombies is comic. The inescapable conclusion is that the Romero meant for this film to b e either a black comedy or satire, because fear was not an emotion that this viewer registered upon seeing the zombies. Contrast the zombies in Romero’s film to the zombies in Snyder’s remake. In Snyder’s remake, the zombies were literally menacing. Whereas in Romero’s film, the zombies walked around with a blank stare, in Snyder’s film, the zombies had facial expressions, and these expressions were of fury. These zombies were scary, because they looked like they meant business, and their business was to hunt people down and eat them. Moreover, these zombies were incredibly fast and strong. This was shown at the beginning of the film when Ana (Sarah Polley) drives her car to get away from her husband, who was a new zombie and was chasing her.

Health Care Associated Infections and UK Screening Policy Essay

Health Care Associated Infections and UK Screening Policy - Essay Example Bacteria can survive in people without harming them like they can continue to exist on the skin or in the gut. Some HCAIs are caused by bacteria when they actually enter the body in the course of surgical treatments or wounds. Infections are normally cured by antibiotics. However, in certain circumstances, a number of bacteria may become resistant to antibiotics. This leads to complications in treatment of those infections. Antibiotics have the potential to supplement the natural ability to protect the body against bacterial infections. Antibiotics protect the body from bacterial infections by killing bacteria (bactericidal) or by discontinuing the process of their multiplication (bacteriostatic). Bacteria adjust to antibiotics by attaining resistance genes. Bacteria with resistance genes are not affected by antibiotics and continue to survive and also keep multiplying other bacteria that are without resistance genes. The reasons for which bacteria get resistant to antibiotics are as follows. Excessive use of antibiotics increases the probability of bacteria to get resistant to them. Antibiotics were being used to treat disease and illnesses that are not curable by them like flu and cold. In the recent years the recommendation for antibiotics has shown a declining trend by general physicians. Antibiotics courses are often left incomplete. People often leave the medications considering themselves fit, regardless of the doctors’ advised time period and dosages of antibiotics. This careless attitude and irresponsible act leaves bacteria alive and they continue to multiply, become resistant and are transmitted to others. Once people stop using the prescribed antibiotics they use the extra amount for some other infection. This further worsens the situation as different antibiotics cure different infections. Self-medication does not benefit the patient of cost cutting but it costs them higher in the future. In addition the use of random antibiotics from the self

Motivation and Concept Table & Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Motivation and Concept Table & Paper - Essay Example Therefore, each employee aims to provide the best service possible in order to reach the goal of guest satisfaction. In the hotel industry, cognitive motivational theory through goal-setting provides the operational framework in which the employees approach their work. In creating a successful atmosphere within a hotel, cognitive motivational theory has a significant use in creating the appropriate structure in which to help motivate the employees of the hotel to excel in their positions. An important part of cognitive motivational theory is goal-setting in which the employee sets standards and goals for themselves in order to meet a standard that is more than satisfactory for their guests. According to Bandura (2007), â€Å"By making self-satisfaction conditional on matching the standard, people give direction to their actions and create self-incentives to persist in their efforts until their performances match their goals† (p. 128). The goals of the hotel staff are to create a satisfactory experience for the guests. In order to do this effectively, setting personal standards and levels of service that is above the standard will create a better experience for the guests and a sense of satisfaction for the employees. Usually, the front desk manages the calls from guests who have requests and complaints. Sometimes a large hotel will have a phone center to field calls, but most often in an average through small size hotel it is the front desk who manages these calls. Job satisfaction through goal setting within cognitive based motivation occurs as an employee is able to achieve excellent service for the guest. The front desk is the front line between the operation of the hotel and the multiple departments that must accomplish their goals and missions in order to create guest satisfaction. One way in which management may reinforce goal-setting motivation will be

Current Issues Assignment( change another topic about this) Essay - 1

Current Issues Assignment( change another topic about this) - Essay Example Civil societies have always been staunch defenders of human rights in autocratic systems an example is Liu Xiaobo who was given an 11-year sentence for subversion of state power. Li et al (104) acknowledges by asserting that the â€Å"demand for human rights in china today is actually an indispensable step in the country’s modernization plans† The Chinese economy has been growing rapidly and that the pace of human rights reforms have been picking up and that it should be noted that political reforms should not be equated to legal reforms, they be correlated but not synonymous Political reforms should set the tone for legal reforms; adoption of democratic principles in governance ultimately has a bearing on the justice system of a nation. For BeÃŒ ja et al (158) a â€Å"harmonious society should feature democracy, the rule of law, equity, justice, sincerity, amity and

Vitamin K Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Vitamin K - Essay Example Later, after several weeks, Dam found severe bleeding among the chickens, thus discovered the need for the coagulation vitamin. At present, vitamin K is introduced to newly born babies hours upon birth in order to prevent bleeding in the brain. Babies are said to have very low levels of vitamin K in their body after they are born (Croucher & Azzopardi, 1994). Breastfed infants are more prone to the deficiency because infant formulas have high levels of vitamin K compared to breast milk. Croucher and Azzopardi (1994) mention that due to low levels of coagulation vitamin in their body, late haemorrhagic diseases have been discovered in breast fed infants who received a single oral dose of vitamin K. As such, repeated dosage is recommended for breastfed babies as a standard practice in many countries such as the U.K. and the U.S. Golding, Greenwood, Birmingham and Mott (1992) report a decreased risk of cancer among infants whose mothers were given vitamin K during labor. However, there is a tendency for the presence of intramuscular vitamin K compared with babies who were given oral vitamin K and those who did not receive vitamin K at all.